The First Party System
“Then rally strong, and you’ll defeat,
Their schemes of wicked action,
And trample down beneath your feet
The Jeffersonian faction.[1]”
“See Johnny at the helm of State,
Head itching for a crowny,
He longs to be like Georgy, great,
And pull Tom Jeffer downy.[2]
The above lyrics represent a sample of the musical battles that were fought to influence and persuade supporters of each party in the First Party System of the United States. The First Party System pitted the Federalists versus the Democratic Republicans. The First Party
System developed gradually from the issues that were brought forth during the Constitution’s ratification debates between the Federalists and the Anti-federalists and the ensuing debates concerning Hamilton’s fiscal plans for the new nation during Washington’s eight years of rule.[1] The idea of competing political parties that we take for granted today as an integral part of the American political process was not something that the founders had tried to create and they structured the Constitution to try and block their influence, nevertheless the acceptance of the need for parties was something that evolved during Washington’s Administration.
In their book, The Age of Federalism, Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick pinpointed the moment where they believed Jefferson and Madison began to see the need to begin to create some sort of opposition to the direction the government was heading and this was early in 1791 when “on questions of national import Washington now seemed more inclined to take Hamilton’s advice than that of Jefferson and Madison.[2] This put Jefferson and Madison in a difficult position early on because they “no less than other men of their time, abhorred the evils of ‘party’ and ‘faction’ and were not likely, at least not knowingly, to set about forming one themselves. Politics, in the overt form that would come to be taken for granted in the nineteenth century, was as yet unknown.”[3] Elkins and McKitrick also saw a parallel between the Federalists versus Democratic Republicans of the 1790s to the Country versus Court viewpoints in Britain which pitted the country landed gentry against the court and the rising financial interests tied with the monarch. This parallel in the United States had Hamilton and his financial schemes opposed by the “Country” Republicans.[4] Elkins and McKitrick pointed out that it was during this period that Madison and Jefferson began to use “tag words” to describe their opposition, words such as “speculators & Tories,” “monarchists” and “aristocrats:” “The ‘aristocrats’tended to be those of money rather than of land, and the ‘monarchists’ were in practice those who favored English monarchy rather than French.”[5] These tag words and variations of these words would be used in the political songs written for the partisan battles between the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans and they would be used again later during the Second Party System.
As the First Party System began to evolve, Democratic societies formed and these groups of citizens supported the ideals of the French Revolution and were generally seen as supportive of Jefferson and Madison’s concepts of government and republicanism but they created controversy with their “interaction between local partisan action and national publicity.”[6] By 1794 there were more than thirty of these societies in the United States[7] and the Federalist saw these societies as a threat to what they believed was their legitimate rule. This legitimacy debate had much to do with the idea of how public opinion and popular sovereignty should apply in the new American Republic and the songs in this study are one of the methods used by the parties to establish their legitimacy among the people.
International developments during this period had a tremendous effect on the partisan feelings developing during this era with the French Revolution and British foreign policy having a large impact on American political culture. InEmpire of Liberty Gordon S. Wood argues that during the First Party system,“All aspects of American culture – parades, songs, art, theater, even language– became engines of one party or another promoting France or Britain.”[8] The Federalists were aligned with the British, while the Democratic Republicans were aligned with France. Simon P. Newman suggests that the use of political songs was a democratizing force in early America. “They could be learned and sung by almost all Americans, who were thereby enabled to participate in the transmission of information, the construction of idealized versions of truth, and the articulation of beliefs. Quickened by events in France, political songs were ubiquitous in early national America, and their sounds filled the public and private spaces of the American republic.”[9] In American theaters French Revolutionary songs came to be seen as partisan songs for the Democratic Republicans and rowdy sometimes violent theater audiences would demand that the orchestra play the most popular French songs such as “Ca Ira,” the “Marseillaise,” and“Carmagnole.”[10]
During the first years of federal rule under the Constitution there were legitimate fears that the new republic could fail and the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans fought to put the nation on the path that each party felt would best govern the nation and ensure a continuation of the liberty that they had so deservedly earned by winning the Revolution. Partisan newspapers became essential in the development of the political parties and the uniquely American civic culture of marches, songs, and “politics of the street” developed at a rapid pace during this early period and partisan events were repeatedly reported in the partisan papers.[11] Songs were often written for special occasions or events and were an important and essential part of the celebrations, meetings, and rallies. Broadsides were often printed within days of events with songs restating the stories in verse.
In 1798 the XYZ Affair became a turning point in American politics when it was reported to Congress that French officials had demanded bribes from American diplomats in France. Both the XYZ Affair and the Quasi War with France suddenly reversed the calls for French Revolutionary songs in the theaters and helped to push the Federalist’s popularity above that of the Democratic Republicans in the public sphere, leading to a Federalist-controlled Congress.[12] As is often the case when a nation feels threatened, there was a dramatic rise in patriotism and support for the Adams administration (the terrorists attack on 9/11 are the most recent example of this phenomenon), and the Federalists’ anti-French positions seemed to be upheld. Suddenly dozens of songs defying the French and promoting patriotism and President Adams were written and sung throughout the country. “Hail
Columbia,”written by a Philadelphia lawyer, Joseph Hopkinson, and set to the tune of “The President’s March,” became an instant hit. Theater audiences that had previously rioted on behalf of the French now sang the praises of President Adams. In one case, the audience demanded that the orchestra play the song six times before it was satisfied.[13]
The patriotic response to France’s aggressive foreign policy of this time period was reflected in songs that were written and published in newspapers and as broadsides during this period. The typical method to quickly convey a song into the public sphere by the use of popular melodies was utilized by the Federalist printers and can be seen in the song “NEW VERSES – To an old Tune”which was published first in George F. Hopkins Federalist newspaper the Commercial Advertiser in June of 1798. Hopkins, who had previousl published the Federalist Papers in book form,[14] used the popular tune of Yankee
Doodle in his song that lambasts the French and their supporters. The lyrics describe the events of the XYZ Affair and attempt to rally the public behind the leadership of President Adams and to garner support for the buildup of the military. As previously noted, the news of the XYZ Affair did suddenly create tremendous support for Adams and according to Elkins and McKitrick “for a brief and dizzying period (Adams) became widely popular for the first and only time in his life.”[15]
This revised version of Yankee Doodle was the first song recorded for this project for several reasons. First, the song provides an interesting narrative of how Federalists viewed the events involved with the XYZ Affair which occurred at a key moment during the First Party System and caused a tremendous rise in support of the Federalist Party and a dramatic loss of support for the Democratic Republicans who had been seen as the friends of France. Secondly, the lyrics are somewhat bawdy and humorous, which creates interest and amusement in the classroom when listening to and studying this song allowing history instructors a humorous but highly teachable moment. Finally, I found the simple lyrical structure of this song was fairly easy to put to music. Since the Yankee Doodle tune is fairly upbeat, even danceable, I went into the studio looking to create an upbeat song with the verses having a guitar sound and style similar to the second wave of Ska music found in British bands of the early 1980s. This technique (imitating the style of The Specials, Selector, and Madness) followed the spirit of those early American song writers who borrowed British musical influences to create new songs with American lyrics. In addition, the Ska beat gave the song a peppy feeling and brought modern listeners closer to what Americans during the early republic felt when they heard the original Yankee Doodle. For the chorus we wanted to make the tune a little more powerful, but slightly ominous to go with the patriotic pro war chorus, “If Frenchmen come with naked bum, we’ll spank’em hard and handy.” To achieve this effect we beefed up the guitar sound with power chords and a different amplifier with more distortion. The result gave the melody more depth and aggression, recreating the feeling that accompanied the wave of confidence and patriotism that the Federalists were riding when this song was written.
The lyrics are important as well:
NEW VERSES – TO AN OLD TUNE
Sing Yankee Doodle, that fine tune,
Americans delight in;
It suits for peace, it suits for fun,
It suits as well for fighting!
Chorus:
Yankee Doodle (mind the tune)
Yankee Doodle Dandy,
If Frenchmen come with naked bum,
We’ll spank‘em hard and handy!
The first verse and chorus begin with the claim that Americans enjoy the tune of Yankee Doodle, but the tune can be used for war, and in the chorus the Federalists make clear who the enemy is and what will happen to the French if they do indeed try to invade the United States.
To Ca ira and Carmagnole,
Direct’ry danced like Neroes;
But Frenchmen’s songs so full of wrongs
Are scorn’d by Yankee heroes.
The lyrics above name the French songs that had been so popular in the United States during the early years of the French Revolution and this supports the research of Riordan, Wood, and other historians in regards to their claims about the widespread prior appeal of well known French Revolutionary songs. Describing the French government of this period, the five-member “Directory,” as dancing like Neroes or arbitrary and capricious rulers, revealed the growing anti-French feeling that the Federalists were eager to foster in the public sphere and which “true Yankee”heroes were supposed to feel.
The verses below reveal the initial details of the XYZ Affair with Adams efforts shown as just and right by sending a peace envoy to Paris, while the French Directory (Cinq Tetes is French for five heads) and French people in general are harshly criticized as having no
honor.
The President, with good intent,
Three Envoys sent to Paris,
But Cinq Tetes, would not with em treat
Of honor France so bare is.
The next verses referred to the emissaries of French foreign minister Talleyrand who demanded bribes and were called X, Y, and Z in the official government dispatches. Madame Sly symbolized Madame de Villette, purported to be a friend of Talleyrand who met with the
Americans.[16]
Thro’X and Y, and Madame Sly,
They made demand of money;
For as were told, the French love gold,
As stinging bees love honey.
In trying to portray the opposition party in the worse possible light, the Federalists had often portrayed the French, Jefferson, and other Republican leaders as godless Jacobins. The following verses compared the American diplomats to the biblical story of Shadrach, Menach, and Abednego, who refused to bow down to the false idol of Nebuchadnezzar. The Federalists repeated questioning of Jefferson’s religious beliefs clearly worked as there were reports of Christians in New England hiding their bibles two years later when Jefferson was elected.[17]
Nebuchadnezzar long ago,
Set up a golden image,
Shadrach, Menach, Abednego,
Would not go down in homage.
Marshall, Pinckney, and Gerry were the three American envoys that refused to pay the bribe.
Just so cinq Tetes, with pride elate,
Of Marshall, Pinckney, Gerry,
Demand that they, adore and pay,
The piper to make merry.
Benjamin Franklin Bache was Benjamin Franklin’s grandson who was a leading publisher for the Democratic Republicans and a most hated member of the press in Federalist views.[18] The verse below shows that the Federalists believe Bache’s paper “The Aurora” is a tool of the French and Talleyrand being used to try and misinform or ‘trap’ the Americans.
That Talleyrand might us trappan
And o’er the country sound it;
He sent his pill, t’Aurora’s mill,
And Benny Faction ground it.
The Federalists believed that the American diplomats were virtuous in their resistance to French demands hailed Marshall as a hero upon his return from France.[19] The Federalists played up the religious aspect of their claim to rule versus the godless French and Jefferson.
But Marshall came with trump of fame,
And brought the noble answer;
Without a joke he had in soak,
A rod for Talleyrand, Sir.
With fraud and he, Directory,
Deal in deceit and evil;
Who Venice sold, for pow’r and gold,
Would sell us to the Devil.
At this time the Netherlands had become a French territory but the Americans would not have a master (reference to loss of political freedom akin to slavery) nor would Americans ‘kiss’ the French Revolutionaries (San Cullottes).
Their‘fernal hugs, may squeeze Dutch bugs
But we will have no master;
And while the Swiss, Sans Culottes kiss,
We’ll spread a blister plaister.
The next verse was a call for Americans to prepare for war and join militias, which thousands of Americans did during this tense period.
Americans then fly to arms,
And learn the way to use ’ em:
If each man fights, to ’fend his rights,
The French can’t long abuse em!
The building up of Adams’ reputation during this period was a common theme found in the Federalist songs of this brief era, during which even the Federalists were making direct appeals to the people with their songs. In this case the song reminded the people that Adams had signed the Declaration of Independence and as Commander in Chief he would make sure that America’s independence and honor was maintained. The Federalists believed in a strong executive branch and many federalists wished the constitution had made it stronger.
Bold Adams did in seventy six,
Our Independence sign, Sir;
And he will not, give up a jot
Tho’ all the world combine, Sir.
The lyrics end with the message of unity (both parties believing at this time that a two party system was not proper and would be short lived) and firmness.
Let every man, adopt his plan,
Like brothers stick together;
All the threats of vile cinq Tetes
Will never weigh a feather.
If we are firm, peace will return,
Sweet peace, the very dandy;
May they that flinch a single inch,
Ne’er taste the sugar candy
Yankee Doodle (mind the tune)
Yankee Doodle Dandy,
If Frenchmen come with naked bum,
We’ll spank‘em hard and handy![20]
The Federalists belief in 1798 that they would very likely be going to war with France[21] led the Federalist controlled Congress to increase military spending and to pass a series of laws including the Alien and Sedition Acts which were seen as measures to limit foreign influence and to stop domestic attacks on the national leadership. The public sentiment played well with the Federalist goals of strengthening the national authority through a stronger military and their hopes of a stronger, active federal government seeking to thwart enemies both foreign and domestic.
Of the four measures passed by the Federalist controlled Congress it was mainly the Sedition Act that gave the Republicans a key issue on which to regain their momentum that had been abruptly halted by the XYZ Affair. The Sedition Act made it a crime to make statements either written or unwritten that brought contempt to the President or the Congress and the Democratic Republicans and Jefferson felt the Sedition Act was a clear violation of the First Amendment of the Constitution or as the lyrics below state “our Chartered rights”. As the months passed and the threats from France didn’t seem so dire, Democratic Republicans began to nurture the feelings (similar to the Revolutionary rhetoric discussed in the introduction) that the greatest threats to liberty might just be the increasingly powerful Federalist government at home. Congressman Mathew Lyon, a frequent critic of Adams and a favorite target of the Federalists in Congress, due to his Irish heritage and lack of a respectable family name, was one of the most notable people of the twenty-five Republicans to be arrested under the Sedition Act (no Federalists were arrested). He was found guilty in his trial, fined $1,000 dollars and imprisoned for four months. Lyon’s conviction turned out to be a blessing for his reelection campaign which he waged from prison and won.[22] Lyon was the first Republican “martyr”from the Sedition Act and songs were written to honor him upon his release including this song by Anthony Haswell who was also later arrested and imprisoned under the Sedition Act.
“The Patriotic Exultation on Lyon’s release from the
Federal Bastille in Vergennes, State of Vermont”
Come let us raise the flowing strain,
To bid our hero welcome,
Our chartered rights we will maintain,
Tho’ Fitch, or friends and hell come.
Fitch was the U.S. Marshall that arrested Lyon.
In spite of every British jack,
Or Boston Jack , turn’d Briton,
We’ll guard against the least attack,
The foes of Freedom hit on.
The liberty of speech and press,
Our sacred right by charter,
Our Constitution shall express
When Jacks are at low water.
In the lyrics above the Federalists are shown as the allies of Great Britain and the foes of freedom that were wantonly violating the constitutionally protected rights that Americans had fought so hard to earn.
Tho’ Wanton knaves and Blinking fools,
Make stallion stalls and Halls ring,
We scorn both principals and tools
And soon shall of their falls sing.
These lyrics showed that the Republicans felt confident that the
elections in 1800 would put the Federalists out of power while the verses below claimed that Lyon was the first martyr and the speaking out against the government of martyrs like Lyon would save the nation from the despotic rule of the Federalists who were acting like a junto or group of conspirators:
Come take a glass and drink his health,
Who is a friend to LYON,
First martyr under Federal law
The junto dared to try on.
And may a conscious virtue bless,
His hours of meditation,
And give him language to express,
The truths must save the nation.[23]
The song written in honor of Lyon’s release from prison focused on the First Amendment rights of freedom of speech and the press. Another song printed at this time linked the tyranny of King George during the Revolution to the Federalist attacks on freedom as a result of the Sedition Act and showed the Democratic Republicans efforts to try and make the public realize that the rights they had fought for in the Revolution were clearly in danger under the Federalist government.
American Liberty or The Sovereign Right of Thinking
Since we are forbid to speak, or write
A word that may our BETTERS bite,
I'll sit mum-chance from morn to night;
But pay it off with THINKING.
One word they ne'er shall fish from me
For Master Rawle, or Charley Lee;
Yet, if they'll let my thoughts be free
I'll pay them off with THINKING.
When George began his tyrant tricks,
And Ropes about our neck would fix,
We boldly kicked against the Pricks
Nor sat mum-chance, a THINKING.
We freely spoke, and freely thought,
And freely told him what we sought.
Then freely seiz'd our swords, and fought
Nor dreamed of silent THINKING
If Hancock and great Washington,
Had nothing said, and nothing done,
His race the tyrant would have run,
Whilst we were mum a THINKING.
Had Dickenson not dar'd to write,
Had common sense not spit his spite,
Our soldiers had not dar'd to fight,
But set down mum, a THINKING.
We swore that thought and swords were free,
And so the Press should ever be,
And that we fought for Liberty,
Not Liberty of THINKING,
But Liberty to write or speak,
And vengeance on our foes to wreak;
And not like mice, in cheese, to squeak,
Or, sit down mum, a THINKING.
Again on Constitution Hill,
We swore the sovereign people's will
Should never want a press or quill,
Or tongue to speak as THINKING.
That still we're sovereign who'll deny?
For though I dare not speak, Yet I
ONE SOVEREIGN RIGHT, will still enjoy
The SOVEREIGN RIGHT OF THINKING.
AMERICANUS.[24]
Songs like “American Liberty or The Sovereign Right of Thinking” reveal the powerful connection the Democratic Republicans were putting in the public sphere between the Revolutionary ideals that rose up against the British suppression of rights, and the Federalists attempts to silence their fellow Americans. These songs helped to inform the public and also to increase anger towards the Federalists which in turn led to more support for the Democratic Republicans.
The Republicans rallied around Jefferson as their candidate to challenge Adams in the Election of 1800. Democratic Republicans songs were written in support of Jefferson including “Jefferson and Liberty.” This song is the second song chosen to be recorded for this project and it represents the Democratic Republicans feelings during the ‘Revolution of 1800’ when Jefferson wins the presidency. The song praised their candidate and hailed the end of Adams’ presidency and the end of the Alien Sedition Acts, which the song refers to as the “reign of terror” as seen in the lyrics below. When recording the song “Jefferson and Liberty” we utilized a 12 string acoustic guitar to give the song a brighter more positive feel and create a joyous mood to match the triumphant lyrics. The music in the introduction expressed this mood of a new day dawning and the feeling of the Democratic Republicans that the Republic had been saved and a new political era was dawning. The drumbeat is purposefully dynamic and loud to create a big triumphant sound. Finally to try and create a feeling of Jefferson being the true “people’s choice” we had four male vocalists shout out the chorus “Rejoice Columbia’s sons!”
JEFFERSON AND LIBERTY
The gloomy night before us flies:
The reign of terror now is o'er,
Its gags, inquisitors and spies,
Its hordes of harpies are no more.
The Democratic Republicans described the Federalists attacks on freedom of the speech and press as “the reign of terror” juxtaposing the term for the excesses during the French Revolution that had caused so much anxiety among Federalist, for the excesses of power the Democratic Republicans felt the Federalists had abused under the Adams’Administration.
Rejoice! Columbia's sons, rejoice!
To tyrants never bend the knee,
But join with heart, and soul, and voice,
For JEFFERSON and LIBERTY.
Americans had commonly used the term “Columbia’s sons” and “Columbia” when speaking about Americans and America. The revolutionary rhetoric of standing up to tyrants was now meant for Adams and the Federalists as the Democratic Republicans claim they are carrying on the true revolutionary traditions of resistance to slavery and tyranny.
O'er vast Columbia's varied clime,
Her cities, forests, shores and dales,
In rising majesty sublime,
Immortal Liberty prevails.
Hail! long expected glorious day!
Illustrious, memorable morn;
That freedom's fabric from decay
Secures for millions yet unborn.
The verse above portrayed Jefferson’s election as securing the future freedom of Americans while the verse below praised Jefferson for his previous and future service for the country:
His country's glory, hope and stay,
In virtue and in talents tri'd,
Now rises to assume the sway,
O'er freedom's temple to preside.
Within its hallow'd walls immense
No hireling band shall e'er arise,
Array'd in tyranny's defence,
To hear an injur'd people's cries.
The Democratic Republicans were strongly against a standing army that could enforce the governments will on the people, especially one led by a Federalist such as Hamilton who was too closely aligned with Great Britain.
No lordling here with gorging jaws,
Shall wring from industry its food,
No fiery bigot's holy laws,
Lay waste our fields and streets in blood,
The Democratic Republicans wanted to show that America was a land in which nobility and lords did not take away the fruits of freeman’s labor and America is where freedom is valued, including freedom from “holy laws.” The verse below contended that the Democratic Republicans were the party that was more accepting of immigrants who had come to America for freedom from tyranny and they were opposed to anti-immigrant legislation like the Alien and Naturalization Acts.
Here strangers from a thousand shores,
Compelled by tyranny to roam,
Shall find amidst abundant stores,
A nobler and a happier home.
The next three verses list America’s virtues including a strong economy and plenty of natural resources, an ideal location far from the problems of Europe, and once again the Democratic Republicans focus on the right to freedom of, and freedom from religion.
Here art shall lift her laurelled head,
Wealth, industry and peace divine,
And where dark pathless forests spread,
Rich fields and lofty cities shine.
From Europe's wants and woes remote,
A dreary waste of waves between,
Here plenty cheers the humble cot,
And smiles on every village green.
Here free as air's expanded space,
To every soul and sect shall be,
The sacred privlege of our race,
The worship of the Deity.
The next three verses focus on liberty. The liberty tree was a powerful symbol from the Revolution that was brought back to use by the Democratic Republicans to demonstrate their strong support of liberty and their attempts to show their belief that they, not the Federalists, were the legitimate heirs to the Revolution and the third verse shows that they are ready to rise up for Jefferson if the will of the voters is not heeded.
These gifts, great Liberty, are thine;
Ten thousand more we owe to thee!
Immortal may their memories shine,
Who fought and died for liberty.
What heart but hails a scene so bright,
What soul but inspiration draws,
Who would not guard so dear a right,
Or die in such a glorious cause.
Let foes to freedom dread the name,
But should they touch the sacred tree,
Twice fifty thousand swords shall flame
For JEFFERSON and LIBERTY,
The next verse outlines the boundaries of the young nation and claim support from all regions for the end of the Federalist rule.
From Georgia up to Lake Champlain,
From seas to Mississippi's shore,
Ye sons of freedom loud proclaim,
THE REIGN OF TERROR Is No MORE.
Rejoice! Columbia s sons, rejoice!
To tyrants never bend the knee,
But join with heart, and soul, and voice,
For JEFFERSON and LIBERTY. [25]
Overall, the song focused on the importance of the American concept of standing up against tyranny, an idea with strong resonance from the American Revolution. The Democratic Republicans had assumed the roles of the guardians of American liberty with Jefferson as their leader.
The songs that have been examined in the first section of this study, although a small sampling of many such songs, reveal the strong feelings that Americans held during the contentious early days of the First Party System. Teachers can use the recordings of “New Verses -To An Old Tune” and “Jefferson and Liberty” to enrich, enliven, and deepen their lessons about the development of the First Party System. The lyrics in these songs provide evidence that there were true ideological differences between the Federalist and the Democratic Republicans as to who should lead the government and the proper course of action our government should take during these early years. In “New Verses – To An Old Tune” one can see the more aggressive, patriotism of the Federalists as they tried to stoke the anti-French anger during the political opportunity granted to them by the XYZ Affair. The lyrics also show their pride in America, traditional masculine and Christian values, and the belief that party and factions were unwanted and would be dying out soon. The second song “Jefferson and Liberty”reveals the more moderate nature of the Democratic Republicans and their strong belief in liberty, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion. The song also shows their belief that they were the true heirs to the Revolutionary ideals that they had claimed from Great Britain. Finally, these songs also show the dynamic and musical manner in which the nation reacted to critical events both foreign and domestic. The partisan battles between the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans would continue after Jefferson assumed the Presidency in 1801, and they would continue to be published in partisan songs from this era, but the Federalists would never regain the presidency and ultimately wither away after their opposition to the War of 1812.
Lyrics from intro:
[1]Vera Brodsky Lawrence, Music for Patriots, Politicians, and Presidents: Harmonies and Discords of the First Hundred Years. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co, 1975, 162.
[2] Irwin Silber, Songs America Voted By (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1971), 25.
Endnotes:
[1] John H. Aldrich, Ruth W. Grant,“The Antifederalists, the First Congress, and the First Parties,” The Journal of Politics 55, no. 2 (May, 1993): 296.
[2] Stanley Elkins, Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788 – 1800(Oxford University Press, New York, 1993), 236.
[3] Elkins, The Age of Federalism, 241.
[4] Elkins, The Age of Federalism, 14.
[5]Elkins, The Age of Federalism, 237
[6] Albrecht Koschnik, “The Democratic Societies of Philadelphia and the Limits of the American Public Sphere, circa 1793 – 1795”, The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul., 2001): 616.
[7] Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy- Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005. 41.
[8] Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789 – 1815. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009, 255.
[9] Simon P Newman, Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive Culture in the Early American Republic.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997, 177.
[10]Liam Riordan. “"O Dear, What Can the Matter Be?": The Urban Early Republic and the Politics of
Popular Song in Benjamin Carr's Federal Overture” Journal of the Early Republic- Volume 31, Number 2, (Summer, 2011): 227
[11] Newman , Parades,187.
[12] Elkins, The Age of Federalism, 588.
[13] Wood, Empire, 243-244.
[14] http://www.bibliopolis.com/main/books/1101219.html?id=EDJbSByD accessed 7/28/2012
[15]Elkins, The Age of Federalism, 588.
[16]XYZ Affair The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. | 2012 | http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/XYZ_Affair.aspx. accessed 7/28/2012
[17]Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Cheese and the Words: Popular Political Culture and Participatory Democracy in the Early American Republic” in Beyond the Founders, eds. Pasley, Robertson, and Waldstreicher, 39-40.
[18] Wood, Empire, 259
[19]Wood, Empire, 243
[20]Lawrence, Music for Patriots, 141.
[21]Wood, Empire of Liberty, 247.
[22]Wood, Empire of Liberty, 262
[23]Paul S. Gillies, “Ruminations: The Trial of Matthew Lyon,” Vermont Bar Journal 37, no. 2 ( Summer 2011), 15, under“Ruminations” http://content.yudu.com/Library/A1tqaa/VermontBarAssociatio/resources/15.htm
(accessed May 7, 2012)
[24]Craig R. Smith, “The Aliens are Coming: John Adams and the Federalist Attack on the First Amendment” The Center for First Amendment Studies, under“White Papers” http://www.firstamendmentstudies.org/wp/alien.html (accessed April 25, 2012)
[25]Francis Coleman Rosenberger, Jefferson Reader:A Treasury of Writings About Thomas Jefferson (New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1953), 99-101. under “Jefferson Reader: A Treasury of Writings About Thomas Jefferson,”http://archive.org/details/jeffersonreadera011407mbp (accessed May 8, 2012)
Images:
Alexander Hamilton Portrait
Library of Congress - Prints and Photographs Online Catalog
Jefferson Portrait:
by Tadeusz Kościuszko Library of Congress: American Memory- "I